Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2025), p

Infotech (IT) is a set of associated fields that encompass computer system systems, software, shows languages, data and info processing, and storage. [1] IT forms part of info and interactions innovation (ICT). [2] An infotech system (IT system) is normally a details system, an interactions system, or, more particularly speaking, a computer system – consisting of all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment – operated by a restricted group of IT users, and an IT project typically describes the commissioning and implementation of an IT system. [3] IT systems play an important role in assisting in efficient data management, improving communication networks, and supporting organizational procedures across various industries. Successful IT projects require careful planning and continuous upkeep to guarantee ideal performance and alignment with organizational goals. [4]

Although humans have actually been saving, obtaining, controling, evaluating and interacting details since the earliest writing systems were established, [5] the term info innovation in its modern-day sense first appeared in a 1958 article released in the Harvard Business Review; authors Harold J. Leavitt and Thomas L. Whisler commented that « the brand-new technology does not yet have a single established name. We will call it details innovation (IT). » [6] Their meaning includes 3 categories: techniques for processing, the application of analytical and mathematical approaches to decision-making, and the simulation of higher-order analyzing computer system programs. [6]

The term is typically used as a synonym for computer systems and computer system networks, but it also includes other info distribution innovations such as tv and telephones. Several products or services within an economy are associated with info innovation, consisting of hardware, software application, electronic devices, semiconductors, web, telecom devices, and e-commerce. [7] [a]

Based on the storage and processing technologies utilized, it is possible to differentiate four unique phases of IT advancement: pre-mechanical (3000 BC – 1450 AD), mechanical (1450 – 1840), electromechanical (1840 – 1940), and electronic (1940 to present). [5]

Infotech is a branch of computer technology, specified as the research study of procedures, structures, and the processing of numerous kinds of data. As this field continues to progress worldwide, its concern and significance have grown, causing the introduction of computer system science-related courses in K-12 education.

Ideas of computer science were first pointed out before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had talked about and began thinking about computer circuits and mathematical computations. As time went on, the field of infotech and computer system science became more complex and had the ability to manage the processing of more information. Scholarly short articles began to be released from different companies. [9]

During the early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were thought about a few of the major leaders of computer system technology in the mid-1900s. Providing such credit for their developments, the majority of their efforts were concentrated on designing the first digital computer system. Along with that, subjects such as artificial intelligence started to be raised as Turing was starting to question such technology of the time period. [10]

Devices have actually been utilized to help calculation for thousands of years, most likely at first in the form of a tally stick. [11] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the very first century BC, is usually thought about the earliest recognized mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known tailored mechanism. [12] Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not up until 1645 that the very first mechanical calculator efficient in performing the four standard arithmetical operations was established. [13]

Electronic computer systems, utilizing either relays or valves, started to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world’s very first programmable computer, and by contemporary standards one of the first makers that could be considered a complete computing maker. During the Second World War, Colossus developed the very first electronic digital computer to decrypt German messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being developed to carry out only a single job. It likewise did not have the capability to store its program in memory; programs was brought out utilizing plugs and switches to alter the internal circuitry. [14] The first recognizably contemporary electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its very first program on 21 June 1948. [15]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories permitted a brand-new generation of computers to be developed with considerably reduced power intake. The very first commercially readily available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power intake of 25 kilowatts. By contrast, the very first transistorized computer system developed at the University of Manchester and functional by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its last version. [16]

Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor innovation consist of the incorporated circuit (IC) created by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, silicon dioxide surface area passivation by Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick in 1955, [17] the very first planar silicon dioxide transistors by Frosch and Derick in 1957, [18] the MOSFET demonstration by a Bell Labs group. [19] [20] [21] [22] the planar process by Jean Hoerni in 1959, [23] [24] [25] and the microprocessor developed by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima, and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important inventions led to the advancement of the computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the introduction of details and interactions innovation (ICT). [26]

By 1984, according to the National Westminster Bank Quarterly Review, the term infotech had been redefined as « The development of cable tv was enabled by the merging of telecoms and calculating innovation (… generally known in Britain as infotech). » We then begin to see the appearance of the term in 1990 contained within files for the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). [27]

Innovations in technology have actually already changed the world by the twenty-first century as individuals were able to access different online services. This has altered the workforce significantly as thirty percent of U.S. employees were already in careers in this profession. 136.9 million individuals were personally linked to the Internet, which was comparable to 51 million homes. [28] In addition to the Internet, new kinds of technology were likewise being introduced around the world, which has enhanced efficiency and made things easier around the world.

In addition to technology transforming society, millions of procedures could be carried out in seconds. Innovations in interaction were likewise vital as people began to depend on the computer system to interact through telephone lines and cable television. The introduction of the email was thought about advanced as « companies in one part of the world could interact by email with providers and purchasers in another part of the world … » [29]

Not only personally, computers and innovation have actually also revolutionized the marketing industry, resulting in more buyers of their items. In 2002, Americans surpassed $28 billion in goods just over the Internet alone while e-commerce a years later on led to $289 billion in sales. [29] And as are rapidly ending up being more sophisticated day by day, they are becoming more used as people are ending up being more reliant on them during the twenty-first century.

Data processing

Storage

Early electronic computers such as Colossus utilized punched tape, a long strip of paper on which information was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete. [30] Electronic data storage, which is used in modern computer systems, dates from World War II, when a kind of delay-line memory was established to get rid of the mess from radar signals, the first useful application of which was the mercury delay line. [31] The very first random-access digital storage gadget was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard cathode ray tube. [32] However, the details stored in it and delay-line memory was unstable in the reality that it needed to be constantly refreshed, and hence was lost when power was gotten rid of. The earliest type of non-volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932 [33] and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the world’s first commercially readily available general-purpose electronic computer system. [34]

IBM introduced the first disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system. [35]:6 Most digital data today is still kept magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. [36]:4 -5 Until 2002 most info was kept on analog devices, however that year digital storage capability surpassed analog for the first time. As of 2007 [upgrade], practically 94% of the information saved around the world was held digitally: [37] 52% on hard drives, 28% on optical gadgets, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has actually been approximated that the around the world capability to keep info on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to 295 exabytes in 2007, [38] doubling roughly every 3 years. [39]

Databases

Database Management Systems (DMS) emerged in the 1960s to address the issue of saving and recovering big amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM’s Information Management System (IMS), [40] which is still commonly deployed more than 50 years later. [41] IMS shops data hierarchically, [40] however in the 1970s Ted Codd proposed an alternative relational storage design based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar ideas of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the very first commercially offered relational database management system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle. [42]

All DMS consist of parts, they enable the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by numerous users while keeping its integrity. [43] All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is specified and kept separately from the data itself, in a database schema. [40]

Over the last few years, the extensible markup language (XML) has actually become a popular format for information representation. Although XML information can be saved in regular file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to make the most of their « robust application confirmed by years of both theoretical and useful effort. » [44] As a development of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML’s text-based structure offers the advantage of being both machine- and human-readable. [45]

Transmission

Data transmission has 3 elements: transmission, proliferation, and reception. [46] It can be broadly categorized as broadcasting, in which info is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or telecoms, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels. [38]

XML has been increasingly utilized as a means of data interchange given that the early 2000s, [47] particularly for machine-oriented interactions such as those included in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, [45] describing « data-in-transit rather than … data-at-rest ». [47]

Manipulation

Hilbert and Lopez recognize the exponential rate of technological modification (a kind of Moore’s law): devices’ application-specific capability to calculate info per capita roughly doubled every 14 months between 1986 and 2007; the per capita capacity of the world’s general-purpose computer systems doubled every 18 months throughout the same 2 years; the worldwide telecommunication capacity per capita doubled every 34 months; the world’s storage capability per capita needed approximately 40 months to double (every 3 years); and per capita broadcast info has actually doubled every 12.3 years. [38]

Massive quantities of data are saved worldwide every day, however unless it can be evaluated and presented efficiently it essentially lives in what have actually been called information burial places: « information archives that are hardly ever checked out ». [48] To attend to that concern, the field of information mining – « the process of discovering fascinating patterns and knowledge from big amounts of data » [49] – emerged in the late 1980s. [50]

Email

The innovation and services it offers sending and getting electronic messages (called « letters » or « electronic letters ») over a distributed (including international) computer system network. In terms of the composition of elements and the concept of operation, electronic mail virtually repeats the system of routine (paper) mail, borrowing both terms (mail, letter, envelope, attachment, box, shipment, and others) and particular features – ease of use, message transmission hold-ups, adequate dependability and at the exact same time no guarantee of delivery. The advantages of email are: easily viewed and kept in mind by an individual addresses of the form user_name@domain_name (for example, somebody@example.com); the ability to transfer both plain text and formatted, in addition to arbitrary files; self-reliance of servers (in the basic case, they attend to each other straight); sufficiently high dependability of message delivery; ease of usage by humans and programs.

Disadvantages of e-mail: the presence of such a phenomenon as spam (massive marketing and viral mailings); the theoretical impossibility of guaranteed shipment of a specific letter; possible delays in message shipment (up to several days); limits on the size of one message and on the overall size of messages in the mail box (personal for users).

Search system

A software application and hardware complex with a web user interface that provides the capability to look for information on the Internet. A search engine typically means a website that hosts the interface (front-end) of the system. The software application part of an online search engine is a search engine (search engine) – a set of programs that offers the performance of a search engine and is typically a trade trick of the search engine designer company. Most online search engine look for information on Internet websites, but there are likewise systems that can search for files on FTP servers, items in online stores, and details on Usenet newsgroups. Improving search is one of the priorities of the contemporary Internet (see the Deep Web short article about the primary issues in the work of online search engine).

Commercial impacts

Companies in the infotech field are often gone over as a group as the « tech sector » or the « tech industry. » [51] [52] [53] These titles can be misleading sometimes and should not be mistaken for « tech business; » which are typically big scale, for-profit corporations that sell consumer innovation and software application. It is likewise worth noting that from an organization viewpoint, Infotech departments are a « cost center » most of the time. A cost center is a department or staff which sustains expenditures, or « expenses », within a company rather than creating revenues or income streams. Modern services rely heavily on innovation for their day-to-day operations, so the expenses delegated to cover technology that assists in company in a more effective manner are usually viewed as « just the expense of doing service. » IT departments are allocated funds by senior leadership and must try to achieve the preferred deliverables while remaining within that budget. Government and the private sector might have different funding systems, however the concepts are more-or-less the exact same. This is a typically neglected factor for the fast interest in automation and expert system, however the consistent pressure to do more with less is opening the door for automation to take control of at least some minor operations in big companies.

Many business now have IT departments for managing the computer systems, networks, and other technical locations of their businesses. Companies have actually also sought to integrate IT with organization results and decision-making through a BizOps or organization operations department. [54]

In a company context, the Information Technology Association of America has defined information innovation as « the study, style, advancement, application, implementation, assistance, or management of computer-based information systems ». [55] [page required] The duties of those working in the field include network administration, software application advancement and installation, and the preparation and management of a company’s technology life cycle, by which hardware and software application are preserved, updated, and changed.

Information services

Information services is a term rather loosely used to a range of IT-related services used by commercial business, [56] [57] [58] along with information brokers.

-.
U.S. Employment distribution of computer system systems style and associated services, 2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Employment in the computer systems and style associated services market, in thousands, 1990-2011 [59]

-.
U.S. Occupational development and incomes in computer system systems style and associated services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. predicted percent modification in employment in selected occupations in computer systems design and related services, 2010-2020 [59]

-.
U.S. predicted typical annual percent change in output and employment in picked markets, 2010-2020 [59]

Ethics

The field of details ethics was developed by mathematician Norbert Wiener in the 1940s. [60]:9 Some of the ethical problems connected with making use of info innovation include: [61]:20 -21

– Breaches of copyright by those downloading files stored without the authorization of the copyright holders.
– Employers monitoring their staff members’ emails and other Internet use.
Unsolicited emails.
Hackers accessing online databases.
– Web sites setting up cookies or spyware to monitor a user’s online activities, which may be utilized by data brokers.

IT tasks

Research suggests that IT projects in business and public administration can quickly become considerable in scale. Work performed by McKinsey in partnership with the University of Oxford suggested that half of all massive IT projects (those with preliminary cost price quotes of $15 million or more) frequently failed to preserve expenses within their preliminary budgets or to finish on time. [62]

Information and communications technology (ICT).
IT facilities.
Outline of infotech.
Knowledge society.

Notes

^ On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments: « In its original application ‘infotech’ was appropriate to explain the convergence of technologies with application in the vast field of information storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This beneficial conceptual term has actually considering that been converted to what claims to be of fantastic usage, however without the reinforcement of definition … the term IT lacks compound when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position. » [8] References

Citations

^ Cosker, Glynn (2023 ), « What Is Information Technology? A Newbie’s Guide to the World of IT », Technology Blog, Rasmussen University.
^ « Computer Technology Definition ». Law Insider. Retrieved 11 July 2022. ^ Forbes Technology Council, 16 Key Steps To Successful IT Project Management, published 10 September 2020, accessed 23 June 2023
^ Hindarto, Djarot (30 August 2023). « The Management of Projects is Improved Through Enterprise Architecture on Project Management Application Systems ». International Journal Software Engineering and Computer Science (IJSECS). 3 (2 ): 151-161. doi:10.35870/ ijsecs.v3i2.1512. ISSN 2776-3242.
^ a b Butler, Jeremy G., A History of Information Technology and Systems, University of Arizona, archived from the original on 5 August 2012, obtained 2 August 2012
^ a b Leavitt, Harold J.; Whisler, Thomas L. (1958 ), « Management in the 1980s », Harvard Business Review, 11.
^ Chandler, Daniel; Munday, Rod (10 February 2011), « Infotech », A Dictionary of Media and Communication (first ed.), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199568758, obtained 1 August 2012, Commonly a synonym for computer systems and computer networks however more broadly designating any technology that is used to create, shop, process, and/or distribute details electronically, including television and telephone.
^ Ralston, Hemmendinger & Reilly (2000 ), p. 869.
^ Slotten, Hugh Richard (1 January 2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ acref/9780199766666.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-976666-6.
^ Henderson, H. (2017 ). computer technology. In H. Henderson, Facts on File science library: Encyclopedia of computer technology and technology. (3rd ed.). [Online] New York: Facts On File.
^ Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981 ), « Decipherment of the earliest tablets », Science, 211 (4479 ): 283-285, Bibcode:1981 Sci … 211..283 S, doi:10.1126/ science.211.4479.283, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 17748027.
^ Wright (2012 ), p. 279.
^ Chaudhuri (2004 ), p. 3.
^ Lavington (1980 ), p. 11.
^ Enticknap, Nicholas (Summer 1998), « Computing’s Golden Jubilee », Resurrection (20 ), ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 9 January 2012, retrieved 19 April 2008.
^ Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998), « Some early transistor applications in the UK », Engineering Science & Education Journal, 7 (3 ): 100-106, doi:10.1049/ esej:19980301 (inactive 7 December 2024), ISSN 0963-7346 citation: CS1 maint: DOI non-active since December 2024 (link).
^ US2802760A, Lincoln, Derick & Frosch, Carl J., « Oxidation of semiconductive surface areas for regulated diffusion », released 1957-08-13
^ Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957 ). « Surface Protection and Selective Masking throughout Diffusion in Silicon ». Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9 ): 547. doi:10.1149/ 1.2428650.
^ KAHNG, D. (1961 ). « Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device ». Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583-596. doi:10.1142/ 9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-540-34258-8.
^ Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (1960 ). « The systems for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen ». Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131-136. Bibcode:1960 JPCS … 14..131 L. doi:10.1016/ 0022-3697( 60 )90219-5.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 120. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Lojek, Bo (2007 ). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 120 & 321-323. ISBN 9783540342588.
^ Bassett, Ross Knox (2007 ). To the Digital Age: Research Labs, Start-up Companies, and the Rise of MOS Technology. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780801886393.
^ US 3025589 Hoerni, J. A.: « Method of Manufacturing Semiconductor Devices » filed May 1, 1959
^ « Advanced details on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 » (PDF). Nobel Prize. June 2018. Archived (PDF) from the initial on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
^ Infotech. (2003 ). In E.D. Reilly, A. Ralston & D. Hemmendinger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of computer system science. (4th ed.).
^ Stewart, C.M. (2018 ). Computers. In S. Bronner (Ed.), Encyclopedia of American studies. [Online] Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ a b Northrup, C.C. (2013 ). Computers. In C. Clark Northrup (Ed.), Encyclopedia of world trade: from ancient times to the present. [Online] London: Routledge.
^ Alavudeen & Venkateshwaran (2010 ), p. 178.
^ Lavington (1998 ), p. 1.
^ « Early computers at Manchester University », Resurrection, 1 (4 ), Summer 1992, ISSN 0958-7403, archived from the initial on 28 August 2017, recovered 19 April 2008.
^ Universität Klagenfurt (ed.), « Magnetic drum », Virtual Exhibitions in Informatics, archived from the original on 21 June 2006, retrieved 21 August 2011.
^ The Manchester Mark 1, University of Manchester, archived from the original on 21 November 2008, recovered 24 January 2009.
^ Khurshudov, Andrei (2001 ), The Essential Guide to Computer Data Storage: From Floppy to DVD, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-130-92739-2.
^ Wang, Shan X.; Taratorin, Aleksandr Markovich (1999 ), Magnetic Information Storage Technology, Academic Press, ISBN 978-0-12-734570-3.
^ Wu, Suzanne, « Just How Much Information Exists in the World? », USC News, University of Southern California, obtained 10 September 2013.
^ a b c Hilbert, Martin; López, Priscila (1 April 2011), « The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information », Science, 332 (6025 ): 60-65, Bibcode:2011 Sci … 332 … 60H, doi:10.1126/ science.1200970, PMID 21310967, S2CID 206531385.
^ « Americas events – Video animation on The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information from 1986 to 2010 ». The Economist. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
^ a b c Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 2.
^ Olofson, Carl W. (October 2009), A Platform for Enterprise Data Services (PDF), IDC, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2013, obtained 7 August 2012.
^ Ward & Dafoulas (2006 ), p. 3.
^ Silberschatz, Abraham (2010 ). Database System Concepts. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-741800-7.
^ Pardede (2009 ), p. 2.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. 4.
^ Weik (2000 ), p. 361.
^ a b Pardede (2009 ), p. xiii.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 5.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. 8.
^ Han, Kamber & Pei (2011 ), p. xxiii.
^ « Technology Sector Snapshot ». The New York City Times. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ « Our programmes, campaigns and collaborations ». TechUK. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ « Cyberstates 2016 ». CompTIA. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
^ « Manifesto Hatched to Close Gap Between Business and IT ». TechNewsWorld. 22 October 2020. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
^ Proctor, K. Scott (2011 ), Optimizing and Assessing Infotech: Improving Business Project Execution, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-1-118-10263-3.
^ « Top Information Services companies ». VentureRadar. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ « Follow Information Services on Index.co ». Index.co. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ Publishing, Value Line. « Industry Overview: Information Services ». Value Line. Archived from the initial on 20 June 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
^ a b c d e Lauren Csorny (9 April 2013). « U.S. Careers in the growing field of infotech services ». U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
^ Bynum, Terrell Ward (2008 ), « Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics », in van den Hoven, Jeroen; Weckert, John (eds.), Infotech and Moral Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85549-5.
^ Reynolds, George (2009 ), Ethics in Information Technology, Cengage Learning, ISBN 978-0-538-74622-9.
^ Bloch, M., Blumberg, S. and Laartz, J., Delivering large-scale IT projects on time, on budget plan, and on value, released 1 October 2012, accessed 23 June 2023
Bibliography

Alavudeen, A.; Venkateshwaran, N. (2010 ), Computer Integrated Manufacturing, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-3345-1
Chaudhuri, P. Pal (2004 ), Computer Organization and Design, PHI Learning, ISBN 978-81-203-1254-8
Han, Jiawei; Kamber, Micheline; Pei, Jian (2011 ), Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques (3rd ed.), Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN 978-0-12-381479-1
Lavington, Simon (1980 ), Early British Computers, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7190-0810-8
Lavington, Simon (1998 ), A History of Manchester Computers (second ed.), The British Computer Society, ISBN 978-1-902505-01-5
Pardede, Eric (2009 ), Open and Novel Issues in XML Database Applications, Information Science Reference, ISBN 978-1-60566-308-1
Ralston, Anthony; Hemmendinger, David; Reilly, Edwin D., eds. (2000 ), Encyclopedia of Computer Science (4th ed.), Nature Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-56159-248-7
van der Aalst, Wil M. P. (2011 ), Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes, Springer, ISBN 978-3-642-19344-6
Ward, Patricia; Dafoulas, George S. (2006 ), Database Management Systems, Cengage Learning EMEA, ISBN 978-1-84480-452-8
Weik, Martin (2000 ), Computer Science and Communications Dictionary, vol. 2, Springer, ISBN 978-0-7923-8425-0
Wright, Michael T. (2012 ), « The Front Dial of the Antikythera Mechanism », in Koetsier, Teun; Ceccarelli, Marco (eds.), Explorations in the History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM2012, Springer, pp. 279-292, ISBN 978-94-007-4131-7

Further reading

Allen, T.; Morton, M. S. Morton, eds. (1994 ), Information Technology and the Corporation of the 1990s, Oxford University Press.
– Gitta, Cosmas and South, David (2011 ). Southern Innovator Magazine Issue 1: Mobile Phones and Information Technology: United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation. ISSN 2222-9280.
Gleick, James (2011 ). The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood. New York City: Pantheon Books.
Price, Wilson T. (1981 ), Introduction to Computer Data Processing, Holt-Saunders International Editions, ISBN 978-4-8337-0012-2.
– Shelly, Gary, Cashman, Thomas, Vermaat, Misty, and Walker, Tim. (1999 ). Discovering Computers 2000: Concepts for a Connected World. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Course Technology.
– Webster, Frank, and Robins, Kevin. (1986 ). Information Technology – A Luddite Analysis. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.