Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence industry in individuals’s Republic of China is a quickly developing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms highlighting science and technology as the nation’s primary efficient force.

The preliminary stages of China’s AI development were sluggish and came across substantial difficulties due to lack of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind many Western nations in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research was led by researchers who had actually gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually progressively developed a national agenda for expert system advancement and emerged as one of the leading countries in synthetic intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of « nationwide AI teams » consisting of fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company needs to lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s quick AI development has actually significantly affected Chinese society in lots of locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the leading markets that would be the most affected by additional AI release.

The personal sector, university labs, and the armed force are working collaboratively in numerous aspects as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first nationwide law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints planned to limit China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have actually been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of synthetic intelligence in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Artificial intelligence research study and did not start until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists introduced AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was hard so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional offering federal government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Expert System (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research publication on artificial intelligence was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, wise automation and intelligence have become part of China’s nationwide technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has further expanded its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research study jobs has actually significantly increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of expert system, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, expert system was also pointed out in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At exact same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was founded in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s statement of the « Chinese Intelligence Year, » a significant milestone in China’s development of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China provided « A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan » (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical technology that has actually become a « focus of worldwide competitors ». [14]:2 The document advised significant financial investment in a variety of strategic areas related to AI and required close cooperation between the state and personal sectors. On the event of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the « transferability of social resources » in between financial and military ends is an essential component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017, »artificial intelligence plus » was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The very same year experienced the introduction of several application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council specified the requirement for huge talent acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, along with public and private investments. [14] A few of the stated inspirations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI strategy include the potential of synthetic intelligence for commercial improvement, much better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] Since completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies throughout foundational, technical, and application layers, with associated markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, location, and medical research. With the introduction of big language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large design called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s first large scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the policies concerning deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Expert System Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specifications for data collection and design training was released in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and intends to build AI policy discussion with developing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed concern over AI security threats, consisting of abuse of data or the usage of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative expert system to deliver fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market share with 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in income over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s new « AI Tigers ». [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI designs had actually been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

As of 2024, lots of Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have launched AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government objectives

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the leading edge of AI technology will be vital to the future of international military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council aims for AI to become « the primary driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial transformation » by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the international leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council declares that China will have established a « mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system. » [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government « looks for to meld state preparation and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market defenses, creating uneven benefits as they broaden offshore. » [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy declared AI as a leading research top priority and ranks AI initially amongst « frontier industries » that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and advancement

Chinese public AI funding primarily focused on advanced and applied research. [38] The government financing likewise supported several AI R&D in the private sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study revealed that, while China is enormously investing in all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous cars are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s modern industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental locations. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and regional industrial advancement and ecosystem. For circumstances, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production market, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, an international competitors for computer system vision systems. [41] A number of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play an essential role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate cooperation, public-private partnerships, and global collaborations and tasks with corporate-government collaborations are the most common. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the world’s largest pre-trained language design (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI scientists had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in regulating AI services and imposing obligations on AI companies, the general method to its regulation is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population generates a massive quantity of available information for companies and researchers, which uses an essential benefit in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s largest number of web users, producing big quantities of data for maker knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is one of the most extensively used AI applications in China. Collecting these big quantities of data from its residents helps further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D but also provides remarkable economic possible bring in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme advancement of the information and interaction technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets in recent years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) provided draft steps stating that tech business will be bound to guarantee AI-generated content supports the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, business bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not « prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system. » [51] Before releasing a big language model to the public, companies should seek approval from the CAC to accredit that the design refuses to address specific concerns relating to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was blocked to Hugging Face, a business that preserves libraries containing training information sets typically used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local companies with training information that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese federal government utilizes generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has actually been reported to decline to address concerns relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most firms [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial influence on China’s long-term economic development. In the past, conventional markets in China have had problem with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, functional costs are expected to lower while a boost in efficiency generates income development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to conquer adoption barriers including costs and lack of appropriately trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development since of rising needs for laborers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial development is concentrated in coastal regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential decision by the Beijing Internet Court has actually ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China looks for to build a « world-class » military by « intelligentization » with a specific concentrate on using unmanned weapons and expert system. [62] [63] It is looking into various types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial automobiles at an airshow. A media report released later on showed a computer simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a broadening « generational space » in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military concepts, China aims to use AI for exploiting big troves of intelligence, creating a common operating picture, and speeding up battleground decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is thought about China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which seeks to incorporate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have actually been identified: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, intelligent munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, decision support, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of boundaries exist between Chinese business companies, university research labs, the military, and the central government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct methods of assisting AI advancement priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly established for civilian functions. To further strengthen these ties the Chinese government developed a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from business business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data identifying to develop the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in companies dealing with militarily relevant AI applications, possibly approving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual residential or commercial property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, « especially those from competitor or adversarial nations, » from buying U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese federal government has actually been investing, including « microelectronics, artificial intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced tidy energy. » [71] [72]

In 2024, researchers from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model use restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially because China faces obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been operating in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same proportion of information researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research items. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China specifically want to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently established the first children’s curriculum in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database maintained by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology released the first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular focus on user protection, data personal privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence published the Beijing AI concepts requiring essential requirements in long-lasting research and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and lots of national federal governments have actually developed legislation addressing data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to deal with new challenges raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure categorizing all kinds of data collection and storage in China. [81] This means all tech business in China are needed to classify their data into classifications listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and handle information transfers to other parties. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI evaluates the evidence provided and applies appropriate legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology companies may erode judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that « increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [smart court reform] » [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial acknowledgment, sound acknowledgment and drone innovations. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented approach to AI, and has looked for to encourage personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as « AI champs ». [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its large language design Hunyuan for enterprise usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by financiers as China’s new « AI Tigers » in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to worldwide AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained causes of China’s anxiety towards securing an international technological supremacy – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to make the most of the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s « rightful » place and to pursue the nationwide rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that « Chinese federal government officials showed incredibly eager understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy discussions, » and advised that « the U.S. policymaking community to likewise focus on cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China » and « financing, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential change. » [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review likewise concluded: « China might have unrivaled resources and enormous untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading know-how and a strong research culture. Rather than stress about China’s development, it would be wise for Western countries to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education.  » [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship program has stunted the development of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the advancement of AI produces difficulties for holistic national security, including the threats that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on worldwide relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will lead to greater injustice of employees and more major social problems. [28]:90 Gao mentions how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing higher capital accumulation and political power in fewer financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state must be the primary responsible star in the location of generative AI (creating brand-new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military use of AI risks intensifying military competition in between countries and that the impact of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI experts about the existential danger from expert system have happened. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is typically optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 study carried out across 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the benefits of AI outweigh the threats, the greatest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more good than harm for society, and 31% believed it should be controlled by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively used AI facial recognition has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York City Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to identify Uyghurs is « the very first recognized example of a government deliberately using artificial intelligence for racial profiling, » [95] which is stated to be « among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism. » [96] Researchers have discovered that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of discontent are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, especially by regional municipal cops departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Expert System: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.