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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in individuals’s Republic of China is a rapidly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms stressing science and technology as the nation’s main efficient force.

The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across significant challenges due to lack of resources and skill. At the beginning China lagged most Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had actually received higher education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually steadily developed a nationwide program for synthetic intelligence advancement and became one of the leading countries in expert system research study and advancement. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of « national AI teams » consisting of fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each company should lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech recognition. China’s quick AI advancement has actually substantially impacted Chinese society in many locations, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and production are the leading markets that would be the most impacted by further AI implementation.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in numerous elements as there are couple of present existing boundaries. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its very first national law attending to AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade restrictions planned to restrict China’s access to innovative computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and innovation for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and advancement did not begin until the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was hard so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more providing government funds for research tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who received a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have been part of China’s nationwide technology plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has further broadened its research study and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research jobs has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the advancement of synthetic intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the very same year, expert system was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Expert System (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of artificial intelligence. The first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion coincided with the Chinese government’s statement of the « Chinese Intelligence Year, » a significant milestone in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released « A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan » (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council advised governing bodies in China to promote the advancement of expert system. Specifically, the plan described AI as a tactical innovation that has actually ended up being a « focus of global competitors ». [14]:2 The file urged substantial investment in a number of tactical areas connected to AI and required close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the occasion of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the « transferability of social resources » between financial and military ends is a vital component to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017, »expert system plus » was proposed to be raised to a strategic level. [16] The exact same year experienced the introduction of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and introduced their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in partnership with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council specified the need for massive talent acquisition, theoretical and practical developments, along with public and personal investments. [14] Some of the mentioned motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique consist of the capacity of expert system for commercial change, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of big language models (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese researchers started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system released China’s first big scale pre-trained language design in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the guidelines worrying deepfakes, which ended up being effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its version 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on basic generative AI services security requirements, consisting of specs for data collection and design training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and intends to construct AI policy dialogue with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has expressed issue over AI safety dangers, including abuse of information or the use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda campaign of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors developed with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang released the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The fourth and 5th biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s new « AI Tigers ». [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had been authorized by the Chinese government. [33]

As of 2024, many Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Infotech; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be crucial to the future of global military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to basic AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council aims for AI to end up being « the main driving force for China’s industrial updating and financial improvement » by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the advancement of synthetic intelligence theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have established a « mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system. » [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government « looks for to combine state planning and control while some operational flexibility for companies. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market defenses, producing uneven advantages as they expand offshore. » [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a top research priority and ranks AI initially among « frontier industries » that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a strategic sector typically supported by China’s federal government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing generally concentrated on innovative and applied research. [38] The government funding likewise supported multiple AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic company research study showed that, while China is enormously investing in all aspects of AI advancement, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and financing. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on developing China’s state-of-the-art commercial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as a speculative advancement zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending on cities and local commercial development and ecosystem. For instance, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI executions and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the top prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play a necessary function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate partnership, public-private collaborations, and global partnerships and tasks with corporate-government partnerships are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the leading 3 around the world following the United States and the European Union for the total number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the overall variety of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are primarily sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system launched the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has been proactive in controling AI services and enforcing commitments on AI companies, the total approach to its guideline is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population creates an enormous amount of accessible data for companies and researchers, which uses an important advantage in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest variety of web users, producing big amounts of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial recognition is among the most commonly used AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its locals assists more train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however likewise offers significant economic prospective drawing in both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The drastic advancement of the info and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets over the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has actually ended up being the world’s biggest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures mentioning that tech companies will be obligated to make sure AI-generated material supports the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates copyright rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft procedures, business bear legal responsibility for training information and content generated through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material may not « prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system. » [51] Before launching a big language model to the public, companies must seek approval from the CAC to certify that the design declines to answer certain questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions associated with politically sensitive subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or comparisons between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries consisting of training data sets commonly used for big language designs. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, supplies local companies with training data that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually alerted that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking conversations on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address questions connecting to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-term financial development. In the past, conventional industries in China have dealt with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the implementation of AI, operational expenses are anticipated to minimize while an increase in effectiveness produces earnings development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including expenses and absence of appropriately trained technical skills and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most negatively impacted by China’s AI development due to the fact that of increasing demands for laborers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial development might be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related industrial advancement is concentrated in coastal areas rather than inland. [61]

A prominent decision by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to construct a « first-rate » military by « intelligentization » with a specific focus on making use of unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is researching different types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous automobiles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report launched afterwards showed a computer system simulation of a comparable swarm formation finding and destroying a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly affected by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense innovation and fears of an expanding « generational space » in contrast to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military ideas, China intends to utilize AI for exploiting large chests of intelligence, creating a typical operating image, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s response to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) technique, which looks for to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, smart satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, decision support, software application, automated rocket launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist between Chinese commercial companies, university lab, the military, and the central government. As an outcome, the Chinese government has a direct ways of guiding AI development concerns and accessing technology that was seemingly developed for civilian functions. To further reinforce these ties the Chinese federal government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower expenses of information identifying to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the possible to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is purchasing the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, potentially giving it legal access to U.S. technology and intellectual home. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration provided an executive order to avoid foreign financial investments, « especially those from rival or adversarial nations, » from investing in U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, including « microelectronics, expert system, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] advanced clean energy. » [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms said was unapproved due to its model use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, especially since China faces obstacles in recruiting and retaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information scientists in the United States have been working in the field for over ten years, while approximately the same proportion of data researchers in China have less than 5 years of experience. Since 2017, less than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused professionals and research study products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the number of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th globally. [75] China specifically want to address military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently established the very first kids’s curriculum in military AI worldwide. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the previous years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first nationwide ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the subject of AI with specific focus on user protection, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adjustment by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that human beings shall remain in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI principles calling for necessary needs in long-term research and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has actually been the most common topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and lots of nationwide governments have actually established legislation attending to data personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to deal with new obstacles raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative structure categorizing all type of data collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech business in China are required to classify their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow specific guidelines on how to govern and handle data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements related to ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court via videoconference and AI examines the proof provided and uses pertinent legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some controversial cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach unbiased decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that « increasing celebration management, political oversight, and decreasing the discretionary area of judges are intentional goals of SCR [smart court reform] » [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has actually looked for to encourage private tech business in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as « AI champions ». [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI startups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new « AI Tigers » in 2024. [32] 01. AI has actually likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded reasons for China’s anxiety towards securing a global technological dominance – China missed out on both commercial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s « rightful » place and to pursue the nationwide restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that « Chinese government authorities demonstrated extremely eager understanding of the concerns surrounding AI and global security. This includes knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations, » and suggested that « the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating know-how and understanding of AI advancements in China » and « financing, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale necessary change. » [35] A short article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: « China might have unequaled resources and massive untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Rather than fret about China’s progress, it would be wise for Western countries to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education.  » [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship routine has stunted the development of generative synthetic intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates challenges for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the risks that AI will heighten social tensions or have destabilizing results on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will result in higher oppression of workers and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the main responsible actor in the area of generative AI (developing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI threats intensifying military competition between nations which the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one nation but will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI professionals about the existential threat from expert system have occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive regarding AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted throughout 28 nations discovered that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI surpass the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese university students found that 80% agreed or highly concurred that AI will do more excellent than damage for society, and 31% believed it ought to be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised concerns. [94] According to The New York Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to identify Uyghurs is « the first known example of a government purposefully utilizing expert system for racial profiling, » [95] which is said to be « one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism. » [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are connected with increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition innovation, especially by local community police departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer system
List of expert system companies
Regulation of synthetic intelligence

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.